TOEFL 2

TASK 1

PART 2 problem solution question 

Reading A phenomenon known as the urban heat island effect means cities are often significantly warmer than surrounding areas, especially at night. This is because the materials like concrete and steel used in the construction of city buildings trap heat during the day and release it at night. This phenomenon has a number of environmental effects.  As many cities are hotter than surrounding areas, residents of those cities use ore electricity during the summer to keep cool. The cost of this usage - for fans, air conditioners, and refrigerators - may be as much as 100 million per year in a city like Los Angeles. And as energy production is rarely pollution-free, there is an environmental cost, too.  The urban heat island effect can also have a harmful effect on bodies of water within and near cities. When rain falls on a city, stored heat is transferred to the water. This warmed water flows into streams, rivers, and lakes and raises their temperature, which can stress or even kill wildlife. In one example, rainfall over Cedar Rapids, Iowa led to a large increase in the temperature of water in a nearby stream that killed many fish. In addition to the environmental impact, the urban heat island effect can cause summer heat waves to last longer and be more severe. This leads to health issues, including an increase in the mortality rate -that is, the number of deaths. This issue is particularly significant in cities with a large seasonal variation in weather like Chicago and New York.

Lecture script The article claims that the urban heat island effect has both an environmental and human impact. This is trie, but there are a number of ways that people can mitigate, oh, reduce, these negative effects.  As the article notes, people’s desire to stay cool is the main reason for the increased demand for electricity in the summer. A simple but proven technique for reducing city temperatures is to plan more vegetation, such as trees and grass. Painting roofs a lighter color to reflect more sunlight is also effective. Some studies have shown that these two measures can reduce the urban heat island effect by up to 50% Two techniques exist to prevent the urban heat island effect from heating up local bodies of water. One is to use construction materials from city streets that allow water to pass through them. This gives the water a chance to cool down before it ends up flowing into rivers and lakes. Another option is to plant green roofs -that is, roofs covered with grass and other plants- that can soak up the water before it reaches waterways.  The technique for cooling temperatures will also help with the effect on human health, but many cities have begun to offer cooling shelters for vulnerable people when temperatures teach dangerous levels. These are places where people can go to cool off, get a drink of water, and learn about other techniques for staying cool. Taken together, these simple measures can dramatically reduce the impact of the urban heat island effect on mortality.

Both sources discuss the environmental impact of the urban heat island effect. This piece of writing will summarize how the points that the writer makes are addressed by the speaker. 

The writer first claims that the urban heat island effect results in people using more electricity, which costs money and causes pollution. The speaker states that planting trees in cities can reduce the urban heat island effect. She goes on to state that painting roofs of a lighter color can also reduce the effect. This is one way that the lecture addresses issues from the reading. 

The writer next says that the urban heat island effect raises the temperature of nearby rivers and streams, which can harm local wildlife. The speaker argues that using special construction material can cool water before it reaches rivers. She continues by arguing that  green roofs are beneficial because they soak up water before it gets into rivers and streams. This is another way that the lecture answers questions in the reading. 

The writer then asserts that the urban heat island effect means heat waves have a more dangerous impact because they are hotter and last longer. The speaker says that reducing temperatures in urban areas reduces the danger of heat waves for humans. She then says that many cities have locations when residents can stay cool, which reduces the effect on mortality. This is the final way that the lecture takes up points in the reading. 

Structure

Both sources discuss…

This piece of writing will summarize how the points that the writer makes are addressed by the speaker. 

The writer first claims that…

The speaker states that…

She goes on to state that…

This is one way that the lecture addressed issues from the readings. 

The writer next says that…

The speaker argues that…

She continues by arguing that…

This is another way that the lecture answers questions in the reading. 

The writer then asserts that…

The speaker says that…

She then says that…

This is the final way that the lecture takes up points in the reading. 

Exercise 

Reading Different nations and institutions have different definitions of what constitutes food waste, but regardless of how it is defined, food waste is a serious and growing global problem. A study conducted by the international Congress in 2011 estimates that approximately one-third of all food produced for human consumption gets lost or wasted and that this happens at every stage of the food supply chain. Let’s look at three specific problems common in developed nations.  One issue that results in food waste is overproduction. Agricultural producers contractually agree on quantities of food to deliver to retailers. They may produce more than necessary to be sure they can fulfill their contract despite bad weather or other adverse factors. In many cases where farmers have produced too much, the excess is left to rot in the group.  So-called appearance quality standards are another cause of food waste. Supermarkets in developed countries have strict standards about the shape, color, size, weight, and appearance of crops. Items not meeting those standards may be sold as animal feed, but are often simply discarded. For some crops, the waste may be up to 30 percent of the harvest.  In industrialized countries, food is often processed before being sold during which loss and wastage can occur. The processing includes cutting, cleaning, and packaging so that the processed food has the right look and size. Food that is damaged or not up to quality is often thrown out even though it would be safe to eat, as disposal is cheaper than the alternatives.

Lecture script The article I asked you to read describes some ways that industrial methods of food production lead to food wastage. The writer describes this as a growing global problem, which is true, but what the writer doesn't mention is that this is a problem with some surprisingly simple and low-cost solutions.  Take the issue of overproduction. If agricultural producers communicate among themselves more effectively, say through an Internet site, surplus crops from one farm could easily be used to make up a shortage of the same crop at another farm nearby. Any crops still not required could then be sold off as animal feed.  It’s true that most supermarket chains care about the appearance of food they sell, but its less certain whether this is something that consumers care about. Surveys of customers actually show that for many people the taste and price of food items are far more important factors than appearance. So rather than rejecting food that tastes good but does not look perfect, supermarkets could sell it, though perhaps at a lower price.  The problem of wastage during food processing is another one that could be solved relatively simply. Developing processing methods that minimize waste is not difficult and would almost certainly result in long-term cost savings for the processor, though it might be somewhat expensive initially.